Do you know someone who smokes? Forget about all the damage they are doing to themselves, just think about all of that second hand smoke you are being exposed to. Not only yourself, but what about the smoker’s family? What about anyone who enters the smokers abode?

In 2000, the National Institutes of Health (prepared by the National Toxicology Program) released the 9th edition of a report on Carcinogens. A carcinogen is any substance or exposure to the substance that are “known” or are “reasonably anticipated” to be cancer causing. Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS, second hand smoke) is generated from exhaled smoke, as well as the smoke given off by the burning end of cigarettes, pipes and cigars. This type of smoke is listed in the report as a “known human carcinogen.” There are significant studies referenced in the report noting that spouses of smokers and co-workers of smokers are at an increased fist of lung cancer due to this ETS. Just imagine what this second hand smoke does to children. We will get to the effects of ETS on children in a few moments.

Tobacco smoke which is directly inhaled, is also noted as a “known human carcinogen.” It is long known that cigarette smoking causes cancer in humans and is now considered to be the leading preventable cause of cancer. Another form of tobacco is smokeless tobacco. This is in the form of chewing tobacco and snuff. This type of tobacco is known to cause cancers in the oral area (mouth, lips, tongue).

Now, onto the effects of this second hand ETS smoke on children. Children are especially vulnerable to second hand smoke. Since their bodies are still developing, and they have a higher breathing rate vs. adults, children are at the greatest risk of developing serious health effects. ETS can cause asthma in children. ETS increases the risk of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS). Infants younger than 6 years old are also at risk for lower respiratory track infections such as pneumonia and bronchitis and also middle ear infections.

On June 27th, 2006, the Surgeon General released a major new report on involuntary exposure to secondhand smoke, concluding that secondhand smoke causes disease and death in children and nonsmoking adults. The report finds a causal relationship between secondhand smoke exposure and Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS), and declares that the home is becoming the predominant location for exposure of children and adults to secondhand smoke. http://www.hhs.gov/news/press/2006pres/20060627.html

The National Survey on Environmental Management of Asthma and Children’s Exposure to Environmental Tobacco Smoke (NSEMA/CEE) done in 2004 by the EPA finds that 11% of children under 6 years old are exposed to second hand smoke on a regular basis. Parents of these children were found to be responsible for 90% of the children’s exposure. http://www.epa.gov/smokefree/pdfs/survey_fact_sheet.pdf

Now that we know all the bad news and statistics about ETS (second hand smoke), what can we do to help our children?

First and foremost, PLEASE quit smoking! Secondly, help to improve the air inside your home and the amount of ETS your child(ren) is exposed to. One way to improve your indoor air pollution from tobacco smoke is to use an air purifier cleaner. There are many different types of air cleaner purifiers out there. Invest some time and research to find the right type and model for your home. This will help you understand the different types of air cleaner purifiers available.

An air cleaner should not be expected to remove 100% of all pollutants in the air. An air cleaner purifier should be used in conjunction with the removal of toxins from the air in other ways too. A great way to do this is to begin replacing all toxic cleaning products in your home with safer ones. By replacing your cleaners, the toxins that they dispel into the air will be removed.

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So you want to invest in an air cleaner purifier? Great! Air cleaner purifiers are perfect for in the home, office, or business location. So if you have a smoker in the building, a child at your feet or someone with asthma or allergies, you are doing them a great blessing by purchasing an air cleaner purifier.

To start off with, you will want to decide if you want to get a room air purifier, for a specific room in the location, or an air cleaner purifier to work on the entire space at the location you choose. Air cleaner purifiers vary greatly in the amount of coverage they can handle. They can range anywhere from about 150 sq. ft. to about 3000 sq. ft. Find out how big of a space your room, home or business is. For a business location, you may need more than one air cleaner filter.

Next, you will want to decide upon the type of filtration you want to use. There are many different types to choose from. You will see filtration types such as Photo-Ionization, HEPA (High Efficiency Particulate Air), Fiber/Foam, Carbon Media, Ionizers, Ozone Generators and UV (Ultraviolet) Light. There are other types out there, this is just a list of the main types.

Photo-Ionization units are capable of improving the air quality of not just one room but an entire house, even multiple floors. The cleaning and disinfection process occurs as a result of the free radical formation that develops when ozone gas reacts with a high-intensity broad spectrum UV light on a trimetallic target (copper, silver and titanium). The resulting advanced oxidation gasses are dispersed into the air. The cleaning and disinfection process occurs as a result of the free radical formation that accompanies the decomposition of the oxidation gases, which is accelerated by high intensity targeted UV light. This type of unit treats all the air and surfaces in your building that the treated air can reach. Thus, the unit is considered an “active” air purification system because it brings the remedy right to the sources of the contamination. Most others are passive, only treating the air that passes through the filter.

HEPA filters are certified to remove 99.7% of all 0.3 micron-sized particulates. These units usually require frequent filter changes which may be expensive as well. Odors, gases, pesticides and many bacteria will not be removed with this type of unit. They may also be on the noisy side of the spectrum.

Fiber/Foam filters will not remove the fine particulate <2.5 m microns. Particle build-up in the unit acts as a breeding ground for bacteria. These units will not remove odors, gases, pesticides and many bacteria.

Carbon Media filters also require frequent filter changes. They can act as breeding ground for microorganisms and become “blinded” by competing chemicals in the air causing the filters to cease functioning.

Ionizers use what is known as collection plates which are used to attract incoming particles. These plates need to be cleaned every 2 to 4 weeks. Only the particles from the air that passes through the system. They will not remove particles smaller than 1.0 microns, which means that 98% of all particulates will remain in the air. These units are good at removing smoke, but not very effective against viruses, mold, odor and gases.

Ozone Generators will produce and discharge Ozone (O3) into the air. Ozone is a gas made of three oxygen atoms. This contains more than the two atoms that make up the oxygen that we breathe every day. Ozone type filters are known for its ability to remove odors best. There are however, health concerns to be aware of with these type of filters. These units are not safe approved for use in occupied spaces. When directly inhaled, ozone can damage the lungs, cause chest pain, coughing, shortness of breath, and throat irritation. Ozone can also worsen asthma and respiratory diseases.

Last but not least are UV Light units. Ultraviolet has been used in the medical profession for many years. When microbes and gases are exposed to ultraviolet light for a long enough period, the energy from the light rays can destroy some of the bacteria and organic contaminants in the air. At certain wavelengths, ultraviolet light can also emit negative ions and ozone. UV filters should not be used when the area is occupied.

When buying an air cleaner purifier you should take into account the maintenance and cleaning the unit will require. You should determine how often the unit needs to be cleaned. How often the filters must be either cleaned or changed. How much do new filters cost? Once you have the answers to these questions, you can decide which one best suits your needs in terms of long range cost.

After you have researched your selected air cleaner purifier thoroughly, check it also for noise level. Of course you do not want to purchase a noisy air cleaner. Low noise level and clean air, will make your location healthy, healthy, healthy.

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People With Breathing Problems

• Allergies
• Asthma
• Hay Fever

People With Odor Problems

• Users of Air Fresheners
• Pet Owners
• Smokers

High-Risk People

• Infants, Children, Elderly
• Immune-Compromised, Chemically Sensitive
• Anyone with Heart or Lung Diseases
• People who get Frequent Colds or Flu

Businesses

• Increase Employee Producti vity
• Decrease Sick Days
• Save On Health Care Costs

Hotels

• Clean & Purify Air In Meeti ng Rooms
• Eliminate Smoke Odors
• Reduce Risk of Spreading Viruses

Spas and Salons

• Reduce Smell of Perms & Other Chemicals
• Improved Customer Experience

Realtors

• Eliminate Odors In Smelly Homes

ANYONE WHO BREATHES!

Consequences Of Indoor Air Pollution

• Headaches
• Eye Irritati on
• Breathing problems
• Memory Loss
• Skin Irritations
• Colds, Flu, Viruses
• Fatigue
• Depression
• Sinus Infections
• Emphysema

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.All of us are exposed to biological pollutants. However, the effects on our health depends on the type and amount of biological pollution, as well as each individual’s ability to handle the pollution. Some people do not experience health reactions from certain biological pollutants, while others may experience one or more of the following reactions:

ALLERGIC REACTIONS

Except for the spread of infections indoors, allergic reactions may be the most common health problem with indoor air quality in homes and offices. They are often connected with animal dander, dust mites and pollen. Allergic reactions can range from mildly uncomfortable to life-threatening, as in a severe asthma attack.

Some common signs and symptoms of allergic reactions are:

• Watery eyes
• Runny nose and sneezing
• Nasal congestion
• Itching
• Coughing
• Wheezing and difficulty breathing
• Headache
• Fatigue

INFECTIOUS DISEASES

Infectious diseases are caused by bacteria and viruses that may be spread indoors. Most infectious diseases pass from person to person through physical contact. Crowded conditions with poor air circulation can promote this spread. Some bacteria and viruses thrive in buildings and circulate through indoor ventilation systems. For example, the bacterium causing Legionnaire’s disease, a serious and someti mes lethal infection, and Pontiac Fever, a flu-like illness, have circulated in some large buildings.

TOXIC REACTIONS

Toxic reactions are the least studied and understood health problem caused by biological air pollutants in the home or office. Toxins can damage a variety of organs and tissues in the body, including the liver, the central nervous system, the digestive tract, and the immune system.

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Studies from the United States and Europe indicate that people living in industrialized nations spend more than 90% of their time indoors with a majority of it spent at work. In fact, according to the EPA, indoor air pollution is two to five times, and in some cases a hundred times, worse than outdoors. A big contributor to this problem comes from toxic cleaners being used in enclosed office spaces. Many of the cleaning products used to clean offices contain chemicals that can cause eye, skin and throat irritation, headaches, nausea, dizziness, breathing problems, cancer, or birth defects. Poor circulation and insufficient HVAC systems that collect and recirculate the toxic cocktail of evaporated chemical compounds around the office only exacerbate the problems.

Research done by Berkeley National Laboratory in Berkeley, California, found that U.S. companies could save as much as $200 billion annually in worker performance improvements by creating offices with better indoor air. Employees are not only a company’s main source of income – they also make up a big part of a company’s operating cost. When an employee cannot perform their job optimally or calls out sick due to symptoms caused by poor indoor air quality they still need to get paid their salary despite their decreased productivity. With rising health care costs, the benefits of improving indoor air quality far exceed the cost of making those improvements. Many business owners and CEO’s do not realize that poor indoor air quality is creating an unnecessary money drain.

The National Institutes of Health Library of Medicine Household Products Database (www.householdproducts.nlm.nih.gov) lists almost any brand of cleaner, what’s in it, and its links to health effects. The database can be searched by chemical or by product brand. Some chemical ingredients to look out for are:

· Sodium Hydroxide – Inhalation is immediately irritating to the respiratory tract. Contact can cause severe damage to the eyes, skin, mouth and throat. Can cause liver and kidney damage. Found in dishwashing liquids, laundry products, oven cleaner, scouring cleansers and tub/tile cleaners.

· Hydrochloric Acid – Can cause severe damage to skin. Can be harmful to health, just by breathing fumes. Can be fatal if swallowed. Found in odor eliminators and toilet bowl cleaners.

· Butyl Cellosolve (2-butoxyethanol) – Can cause irritation and tissue damage from inhalation. Found in All-purpose cleaners, cleaning wipes, degreasers, floor polish, rug shampoos, toilet bowl cleaners, tub & tile cleaners and window cleaners.

Switching to green cleaning products creates a considerable impact on indoor air quality, the planet, health care and operational costs. A green cleaning pollution calculator can be found at www.ofee.gov/janitor to determine the environmental impact of using “green” janitorial services and products. According to the EPA, Americans generate 368 million pounds of hazardous waste from cleaning products per year. We would eliminate over 15 million pounds of toxic chemical cleaners a year if only 10,000 office buildings switched to green cleaning products. In addition to this, if only 1 out of 4 U.S. households switched to green cleaning products we would eliminate over 7 billion pounds of carbon emissions annually.

Another way to make an impact on indoor air quality is to clean the air. This can be done by using an air cleaner purifier. Air cleaner purifiers will help clean the air and green cleaning products will help to initially prevent hazardous toxins in the air.

THE SCOPE OF THE PROBLEM - Can you see why an air cleaner purifier can help?

• According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), indoor air pollution is the #1environmental health concern.
• Indoor air pollutant levels are often 5 times higher than outdoor air and occasionally upto 100 times higher.
• Indoor air quality is an enormous health concern for everyone because we spend 90% ofour time indoors.
• Every day the average adult breathes in 62 pounds of air and drinks 4.4 pounds of water.That means we take in 14 times more air than water. The large surface area of the lungs and the sensitivity of the tissues make them susceptible to air pollution.
• People who are inside a great deal are at greater risk of developing heart problems, or having problems made worse by indoor air pollutants. These people include infants,young children, the elderly, and those with chronic illness.
• Many ordinary activities such as cooking, heating, cooling, cleaning, and redecorating can cause the release and spread of indoor pollutants at home.
• “Sick Building Syndrome” is on the rise in this country.
• “Indoor air quality has deteriorated in our homes, offices, schools, restaurants, hospitals
• and office buildings. Buildings have become better insulated and therefore have lessfresh air circulating.” - EPA
• Closed buildings accumulate molds, mites, dust, bacteria and viruses. The result is thatthese sick buildings make people sick.
• 40% of all buildings are a serious hazard to our health because of their polluted air. -World Health Organization
• The EPA’s own headquarters had to be shut down due to “sick building syndrome”.
• In 1989, an EPA report to the Congress concluded that an improvement in indoor air quality would result in increased productivity, decreased loss of work days and decreased health care costs possibly leading to a savings of $10 billion.
• Pollutants in our indoor air can increase the risk and worsen important disease conditions such as asthma, allergies, sinusitis, chronic lung disease and chronic fatigue.
• 40 million Americans have allergies, 22 million people have asthma and millions more suffer from emphysema and other breathing problems.
• Recent studies have indicated that pollutants in the air can also trigger vascular reactions that lead to heart attacks.

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The EPA, in 1995, issued a statement to the U.S. Senate declaring that, Indoor air pollution is now our nation’s number one environmental health concern.

In light of ever-increasing energy costs, Americans are sealing their homes and buildings with better fitting windows, more effective insulation, and molding. New home and building designs have focused on improved energy efficiencies. We’ve effectively created structures that cannot breathe, causing stale air to circulate over and over without being thoroughly cleaned. In addition, the use of synthetic building materials has increased, leading to more emissions into the occupied spaces, especially when new. On top of this, studies show that most people spend most of their time indoors.

When homes and buildings are sealed up like this, moisture cannot escape. An increase in moisture can lead to mold growth. Air passing over the mold disrupts it and can lead to mold spores and fragments becoming airborne where they can be breathed in. Dust can harbor bacteria and mold. VOCs are Volatile Organic Compounds that come from common household items, such as cleaners, pesticides, paint and sealants, and of course tobacco smoke. In fact, tobacco smoke is a very complex mixture of chemicals, vapors, and particles that can remain airborne for many hours.

Types of Indoor Air Pollution

• Particulates — Particulate matter in the air is called an aerosol, which includes solid and liquid particles. Particles in the size range from about 0.001 to 10 µm (”micron” or “micrometer”) can remain airborne for long periods of time. Cat dander, which is an allergen to many people, is about 1µm and can remain airborne for several hours. Particles larger than 10 µm, up to 100 µm settle out of air in a matter of minutes.

The vast majority of airborne particulates are too small to be seen with the naked eye. One with good vision can see particles down to about 20 to 40 µm. A human hair is about 100 µm thick. Dust that you see on surfaces is a mixture of many different particles that have fallen out of the air and have stuck together. Human skin scales make up a large part of common household dust. Others are animal dander (skin), fibers from clothing, carpet, and other fabrics, food particles, soil or dirt, parts of plants, and parts of microscopic creatures, such as dust mites, fungus, and bacteria.

• Microbes – Microbe is short for microorganism, which simply means a small organism. More to the point, they are typically too small to be seen with the unaided eye. There are many different types and thousands and thousands of species of microbes. The ones that are important to indoor air quality are bacteria, fungus (mold and mildew). Bacteria are usually 1 µm or less in size. Mold spores are usually about 2 to 10 µm in size and can cause allergy in sensitive individuals when breathed in. Mildew is a common name for fungus that is growing on plants, fabrics, and other objects.
• Gases, Odors, and VOCs – All odors are gases, but not all gases are odors. That means that if you can smell a chemical in the air, it is a gas. One cannot smell a solid or a liquid until a portion of it enters the air. An important term for this is volatility. This simply refers to how easily a chemical can vaporize and become a gas. VOCs are volatile organic compounds and are very important to the study of indoor air quality. Studies have shown that more than 350 VOCs have been found at levels exceeding 1 ppb (part per billion). Some of the common sources for VOCs are building materials and furnishings, household and personal care products, automotive products, hobby supplies, and tobacco smoke. Tobacco smoke alone can contain thousands of compounds including, gases, particulates, and VOCs.

Indoor Air Pollution Sources

This chart lists some of the most common pollutants and their sources found in homes and buildings today.

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There are tons of different kinds of air cleaner purifiers available for purchase. This article will explain the different technologies that the air cleaner purifiers out there use.

Mechanical Filtration — Filter units vary in sophistication and levels of performance. Filters are typically rated and grouped by how efficiently they remove specific sizes of particulates from the air stream passing through them. Filters capture particles as small as 0.1 microns and on up to 100_ microns or more. Group 1 filters are low efficiency. Group 2 filters are medium efficiency. Group 3 are high efficiency and Group 4 includes ultra high efficiency filters. This will make more sense in the following descriptions.

Furnace filters are in Group 1. They are the filter that is typically located in your furnace or air conditioning system. They are there mainly to protect the equipment from excessive dust build up, which can act as an insulator causing heat build up. They capture large particles 10 microns in size and up. Filters like this are often placed ahead of higher efficiency filters and specialized filters, such as activated carbon filters, to protect them and extend their service life. They are usually made of fibers or a foam material.

Some manufacturers have started to offer furnace filters with greater efficiencies for smaller particles around 5 to 10 microns. That would place these in Group 2 as medium efficiency filters. These may help with reduction of large airborne particles such as hair, fibers, and pollen. Some make claims for removal of mold spores.

Bag and panel filters are not common in residential applications, being used mainly in commercial buildings. They are an example of high efficiency filters, but do not include HEPA (we’ll look at that technology next). Group 3 filters reduce at least 99% of 0.3 micron particles. HEPA and ULPA filters fall into Group 4 as very high efficiency filters. HEPA stands for High Efficiency Particulate Arrestor (or more commonly Air). ULPA is Ultra Low Penetration Air.

HEPA filters are required to have an efficiency of at least 99.97% for 0.3 micron particles. And ULPA filters are required to have an efficiency of 99.9999% efficiency on 0.12_ micron particles. HEPA filters were originally developed for laboratory use to filter out very small particles. In the past 10 years or so, HEPA has became popular for residential usage for sufferers of pet allergies since it can filter out very small particles such as these. ULPA filters are typically only used in certain industries such as in clean rooms where particles may be damaging to the process or product being made.

Filtration in general can be effectively applied to the right situation to reduce particles from the air we breathe. However, there are some limitations to this technology.

• The filter can only capture particles that are brought to it. This requires a component such as a fan to force the air through the filter. All filters create some restriction to air flow, which must be considered when sizing the fan. As the filter captures more and more particles, this resistance increased. Too small a fan and not enough air will be moved through the filter. Too large a fan may reduce efficiency by increasing the velocity through the filter. Fans can be noisy too.

• Filters have little or no effect on odors and gases. Dust and other particles trapped in a filter can lend a great amount of surface area to the filter. These particles can adsorb chemicals from the air, which on one hand is a good thing. However, when the conditions change, such as increase in temperature or humidity, those chemicals can
desorb and enter the air. However, if not installed correctly, they can emit odors and gases by a process called desorption.

• Similar to the problem of desorption, filters can also act as a breeding ground for various microbes if the conditions are right. Studies have shown microbes growing in filter systems. Microbes, such as mold, need moisture to grow and a source of food. Most foam and fiber filter materials are not a food source, but the particles collected in them?especially dead skin cells?can be a food source. If the humidity is high enough, sufficient moisture can be present as well. Cleanable foam filters present a good environment for microbial growth if they are not allowed to dry completely when they are washed (?if they are ever washed!). As part of their metabolism (eating and growing), microbes release odors, which can enter the air stream.

Carbon Filters — Another type of mechanical filter is the carbon filter, which may be made from several different types of carbon that may be applied to it in different ways. The carbon may be “impregnated” into the fibers of the filter. The carbon may be crushed into granules that are kept in the filter, similar to a pillow. The key is how much carbon is available to the air stream, the size of the particles, and the type of carbon used.

Carbon filters, once again, if properly installed and maintained can be effective in reducing odors, gases, and VOCs. However, they suffer most of the same problems as described above about filters. Carbon is a food source for microbes, such as bacteria. Some manufacturers recognize this and add an anti-microbial agent to the filter attempting to eliminate microbial growth. The challenge to this method with carbon is to find the right amount of the agent and the right preparation. Otherwise, the carbon “sites” where the odor and gas reduction is supposed to
take place may become taken up by the additive, rather than the contaminant.

Electrostatic Precipitators — ESPs are electromechanical filters. These types of units capture particles, but do not reduce odors and gases, and are partially effective against microbial contaminants. They work by applying a charge to particles before they enter the collection cell or plates, where the charge is the opposite. Recall that opposite charges attract each other, so the charged particle coming into the unit will be attracted to the collection plates. As more and more particles are collected, the efficiency of the unit will decline. So, the plates have to be cleaned on
a regular basis for the unit to perform at its best. Another challenge to this technology is keeping the charging mechanism (a high voltage wire in most systems) clean. If the wire becomes coated with dust and other contaminants, the efficiency of the unit will decline. Cleaning the charging mechanism is often not easy to do.

As with filters, the collection plates become coated with particulates, bacteria and fungi in addition to other particles. The microbes can grow there if moisture is present.

Ionizers or Needlepoint Ionizers — This can be a confusing segment of air treatment units if one doesn’t know what to look for. There is more than one method to form ions in the air. One of them was just discussed above, the patent-pending AirSource Electron Generation technology. Another is the electrostatic precipitators described above. If the unit has a collection cell or plates, it’s an ESP. If it doesn’t have this, and uses needle points, then it’s a needlepoint ionizer. Needlepoint ionizers have a high voltage applied to them. Since, this voltage is not referenced to
ground it only has one place to go out into the air. The air around the device is subject to a concentrated charge. When particles pass nearby they can pick up that charge. The potential problem with this technology is that the particles can become overly negatively charged and if there isn’t a collection plate to capture them, they will start to stick to oppositely charged surfaces, such as walls, ceilings, and furnishings. This has been described as black wall.
The efficiency of needlepoint ionizers start to suffer with use as the needlepoints wear out from the constant electrical discharging (kind of like the spark plugs in a car engine). They either have to be replaced or sharpened periodically.

Ozone Generators — Units in this category produce ozone for the sake of treating the room with this oxidizer. Ozone has some efficacy in reducing simple airborne odors, but doesn?t work as effectively on gases, VOCs, and microbiological contaminants unless it is present in high concentrations. Such high concentrations are not healthy for people and pets to be in. You should make sure that the unit either has been engineered to produce only low amounts of residual ozone or has a proven mechanism to control the amount of ozone in the treated space. The controls on it should be tamper proof as well so that it cannot accidentally set too high of a level.

Depending on how the ozone is generated, the air within the unit can become very aggressive to the materials used in the construction of the unit.

Photohydroionization — The Photohydroionization process is a complicated chemical chain of events that leads to the
production of particular oxidizing ions. Oxidation is the process of adding oxygen to and causing a loss of electrons from a chemical. Advanced oxidation is the addition of a catalyst to drive the reaction at an accelerated pace.

Here’s the simplified version of the Photohydroionization process. The UV lamp provides the energy of the reaction in the form of full-spectrum ultraviolet light. Two wavelengths are of particular interest. One wavelength is in the middle range and is also called germicidal light. This light can make microorganisms unviable (that is, incapable of reproducing). This light strikes the Tri-metallic Catalyst target and starts the advanced oxidation process. Electrons are made available to react with oxygen in the air at the surface of the trimetallic catalyst. That air also contains moisture. Small amounts of residual ozone are produced by the second wavelength of light from the UV lamp. This wavelength is in the far range and is strong enough to split oxygen gas molecules–if you remember from high school science class; oxygen gas is two oxygen atoms joined together. Superoxide ions are also formed at the surface of the catalyst. This is the oxygen gas molecule with an extra electron, which makes it a strong oxidizer.

This should help you to understand the major differences are between air cleaner purifiers you may be looking at so you can make the most informed decision on the purchase of your new air cleaner purifier.

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